Techniques in Applied Behavior Analysis
There are many techniques used within applied behavior analysis that has been shown to be effective through the publication of data and through the process of replication. Below are some of the most popular and most frequently used behavior change techniques used within the field. All these techniques have ethical concerns attached to them, just as any other treatment would have. These ethical concerns can be found in "Ethical Guidelines" section of this website.
Time out from Positive Reinforcement
Time out from reinforcement is exactly what it sounds like. The individual takes time away from reinforcement or from a reinforcing activity/environment. "Removing a reinforcing stimulus for a specified time contingent on the occurrence of a behavior, the effect of which is to decrease the future frequency of the behavior" (Cooper et al., 2007). "Time Out" procedures are commonly used but not always used as intended. For example, time out procedures may go wrong if a child is sent to his/her room following inappropriate behavior at the dinner table, but the child enjoys going to his/her room because toys are readily available and the child no longer has to eat the vegetables still on his/her plate.
Shaping
Using differential reinforcement to produce a series of gradually changing response classes; each response class is a successive approximation toward a terminal behavior. Members of an existing class are selected…because they closely resemble the terminal behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Shaping is sometimes considered an "art" form as this technique typically requires practice and experience in order to shape effectively. Shaping can be used to produce a variety of behaviors in a variety of organisms. Dog trainers tend to use shaping as a primary technique for teaching behavior.
Token Economy
A token economy involves delivering a tangible conditioned reinforcer (called tokens) that are exchangeable for a variety of back-up events (Kazdin, 1977). Token economies are most commonly seen in the form of velcro-token boards, printed coupons, or points. Token economies are commonly used due to the ease of delivery of reinforcement, documented effectiveness, and its usefulness across many settings and behaviors. If a token economy was in place with a child (meaning the child already understood the contingency and expectations involved with the token economy) in the form of printed pretend money. The parent and child could go to a grocery store and as the child engages in appropriate and desired behaviors (e.g., staying near mom, retrieving item from shelf and putting it in the cart), the mom can deliver the pretend money immediately following the behavior. When the parent and child get home, the child can return the money to his/her in exchange for a new toy or snack before dinner.
Chaining
Chaining involves the sequence of steps (referred to as a task analysis) in a more complex/multiple-step skill. Each step within the chain sets the occasion for the next step to occur (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). For example, going onto the internet requires a set of steps. First one must turn on the computer (Jerome, Frantino, & Sturmey, 2007) , then click the "Start" button, then click "Internet Explorer". If the previous step was not completed, the following step cannot be completed because the previous step sets the setting for the next step to occur. There are three popular types of chaining: Forward Chaining, Total Chaining, and Backward Chaining
Forward Chaining: The learner is prompted and taught to perform the first behavior of the task analysis and the teacher completes the remaining steps. When the learner can successfully complete first step, the learner must complete the first and second step while the teacher completes the rest of the chain. This process continues until the learner has completed the entire behavior chain (or task analysis) independently. Tarbox et al. (2009) used forward chaining to increase complexity of echoics in children with autism.
Total-Task Chaining: The learner completes all the steps in the sequence and the teacher helps guide the learner through each step as needed. The teacher will gradually fade the prompts for each step individually until the learner can complete the entire behavior chain (or task analysis) independently.
Backward Chaining: The teacher begins the behavior chain and completes each step except the last one. The teacher will guide the learner through the last step until the learner can independently complete the last step. Then the teacher will again begin the behavior chain and leave off the last two steps for the learner to complete. This process continues until the learner can successfully complete the entire behavior chain (or task analysis) independently. A benefit to backward chaining is because the learner is always finishing the behavior chain, the learner comes into contact with the 'finished product' or reinforcement each time the skill is practiced regardless of how independent the learner is at the time.
Backward chaining is frequently used to memorize phone numbers or how to write one's name. Moore et al. (2013) successfully taught a young girl with autism to write her name using backward chaining. The length of time the treatment procedure is implemented may vary in length depending on your learner and the task. The following video provides an example of a girl learning her phone number in several quick teaching sessions.
Forward Chaining: The learner is prompted and taught to perform the first behavior of the task analysis and the teacher completes the remaining steps. When the learner can successfully complete first step, the learner must complete the first and second step while the teacher completes the rest of the chain. This process continues until the learner has completed the entire behavior chain (or task analysis) independently. Tarbox et al. (2009) used forward chaining to increase complexity of echoics in children with autism.
Total-Task Chaining: The learner completes all the steps in the sequence and the teacher helps guide the learner through each step as needed. The teacher will gradually fade the prompts for each step individually until the learner can complete the entire behavior chain (or task analysis) independently.
Backward Chaining: The teacher begins the behavior chain and completes each step except the last one. The teacher will guide the learner through the last step until the learner can independently complete the last step. Then the teacher will again begin the behavior chain and leave off the last two steps for the learner to complete. This process continues until the learner can successfully complete the entire behavior chain (or task analysis) independently. A benefit to backward chaining is because the learner is always finishing the behavior chain, the learner comes into contact with the 'finished product' or reinforcement each time the skill is practiced regardless of how independent the learner is at the time.
Backward chaining is frequently used to memorize phone numbers or how to write one's name. Moore et al. (2013) successfully taught a young girl with autism to write her name using backward chaining. The length of time the treatment procedure is implemented may vary in length depending on your learner and the task. The following video provides an example of a girl learning her phone number in several quick teaching sessions.
Overcorrection
Overcorrection is a considered a positive punishment procedure only because overcorrection involves presenting a new stimulus or task to the learner in order to decrease a specific behavior. For example, Woods and Miltenberger (1995) have shown to successfully decrease the rate of tics in patients diagnosed with Tourette's Syndrome using a treatment package called Habit Reversal Training (HRT). The overcorrection part of the HRT package involves the patient engaging in an incompatible/competing response of the tic as soon as the urge of a tic occurs.If the patient fails to engage in the competing response and overcorrection technique is used and the patient must engage in the response for a specific time after the occurrence of the tic.
Prompt Fading
Prompt fading is a procedure for transferring stimulus control in which features of a stimulus (e.g., shape, size, position, color) controlling a behavior are gradually changed to a new stimulus while maintaining the current behavior; stimulus features can be faded in (enhanced) or faded out (reduced). (Cooper et. al., 2007). An example appears to the left. The word "red" is written exactly the same in the three presentations except for the color. These three presentations would be used separately overtime. The color red would gradually decrease until the word is written in black and the individual can read the word "red" independently without the color prompt.